Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment

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Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment

Introduction

The case study involves a 19-year-old college student who woke up with the left side of his face drooping after a long night of studying. On his way to the medical clinic, his left eye began to feel scratchy and dry, and he could not blink. The physician conducted a cranial nerve examination and found that the patient had bell palsy, which presents with weaknesses or paralysis of facial muscle mainly caused by a virus leading to inflammation or damage of the cranial nerve VII (facial nerve). This paper will discuss differences between afferent and efferent neurons, efferent components of the facial nerve, axonal degeneration in the central nervous system, and mechanisms preventing continuous muscle fiber stimulation at a healthy myoneural junction. Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment

Afferent Neuron and Efferent Neuron

Afferent neurons transmit sensory information from sensory organs like skin, eyes, and ears to the central nervous system (CNS) (Aragona et al., 2022). They detect stimuli like touch, pain, and temperature and transmit these signals to the brain and spinal cord for processing. As the patient was on his way to the medical clinic, his temperature rose, and he encountered some light detected by the sensory neutrons converting these stimuli into nerve impulses that the CNS, which, after processing, he could not blink. Afferent neurons help us perceive and become aware of our external environment and internal bodily conditions.

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Efferent neurons transmit signals from the central nervous system (CNS) to effector organs, such as muscles (Yam et al.,2018). These neurons initiate and control muscle contractions and glandular secretions. Efferent neurons are responsible for carrying out motor commands, including voluntary movements. They carry out commands and instructions from the CNS to initiate specific actions. Efferent neurons control voluntary muscle movements, involuntary muscle actions like heart rate and digestion, and the release of hormones and other substances by glands (Norris & Lalchandani, 2018). They execute the body’s responses to sensory input and maintain various physiological functions. Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment

Efferent Components of the Facial Nerve and Their Actions

The facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) has several efferent components that control various facial muscles responsible for facial expressions and some glands. The facial nerve controls the muscles responsible for facial expressions, including the orbicularis oculi, which closes the eyelids; the orbicularis iris, responsible for closing the lips; and other facial muscles involved in smiling, frowning, and other expressions (Norris & Lalchandani, 2018). His orbicularis oculi were affected since he could not blink. Salivary Glands also innervate the submandibular and sublingual salivary glands, stimulating saliva production.

Axonal Regeneration in the Peripheral vs. Central Nervous System

Due to several factors, axonal regeneration is much more likely in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) than in the central nervous system (CNS) (Norris & Lalchandani, 2018). The environment within the CNS is inhibitory to axonal regeneration. After an injury, glial cells called oligodendrocytes in the CNS release inhibitory molecules like myelin-associated glycoproteins and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, which create physical and chemical barriers that impede axon growth (Norris & Lalchandani, 2018). In the PNS, Schwann cells are crucial in supporting axonal regeneration. They provide physical guidance for regenerating axons and release growth-promoting factors. The equivalent glial cells in the CNS are oligodendrocytes, which do not have the same regenerative properties as Schwann cells. Neurons in the CNS generally have a lower intrinsic regenerative capacity than those in the PNS. This intrinsic regenerative capacity refers to the neuron’s ability to initiate and sustain axonal growth.

In response to CNS injury, astrocytes in the CNS tend to form scar tissue. This glial scar further inhibits axonal regeneration by creating a physical barrier and releasing inhibitory factors. The CNS contains highly complex neural circuits with precise connections. Even if axonal regeneration were possible, ensuring that regenerated axons connect correctly and functionally reestablish the lost neural pathways would be challenging. This level of precision is much more challenging in the CNS than in the simpler PNS. The CNS has a limited neuronal plasticity and reorganization capacity compared to the PNS. This means that even if axons can regenerate, the CNS may not be able to adapt and rewire effectively to restore lost functions. The window of opportunity for successful axonal regeneration in the CNS is often limited. After injury, the damaged tissue undergoes significant changes, making it increasingly difficult for axons to regenerate effectively (Norris & Lalchandani, 2018). Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment

Preventing Continuous Stimulation of Muscle Fibers at Myoneural Junction

Several mechanisms in a healthy myoneural junction, also known as a neuromuscular junction, prevent muscle fibers’ continuous stimulation after acetylcholine (ACh) is released from the presynaptic membrane (Norris & Lalchandani, 2018). This is crucial to ensure that muscle contractions are precisely controlled and do not become uncontrollable.

Acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme in the synaptic cleft (the gap between the motor neuron’s presynaptic membrane and the muscle fiber’s postsynaptic membrane), rapidly breaks down acetylcholine into its constituent parts, acetic acid and choline (Kaur et al., 2019). This breakdown process is highly efficient and occurs within milliseconds of ACh release. By degrading ACh, acetylcholinesterase ensures that ACh’s stimulatory effect on the muscle fiber is short-lived. After acetylcholinesterase breaks down ACh into choline and acetic acid, choline is actively transported back into the presynaptic neuron. This process helps recycle choline for the synthesis of new acetylcholine molecules. This recycling limits the availability of choline for ACh synthesis and release, contributing to the termination of muscle stimulation. Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment

The postsynaptic membrane of the muscle fiber contains ACh receptors. When ACh binds to these receptors, it triggers muscle fiber depolarization and contraction (Norris & Lalchandani, 2018). However, with continuous ACh binding, these receptors undergo desensitization. This means that they become less responsive to ACh stimulation, reducing the effectiveness of ACh in stimulating the muscle fiber. The action potential (electrical signal) that travels along the motor neuron has a limited duration. Once the action potential ends, ACh release from the presynaptic membrane also ceases. This ensures that the stimulus for muscle contraction is transient and does not persist indefinitely.

Calcium ions play a crucial role in muscle contraction. The release of ACh from the motor neuron causes an influx of calcium ions into the muscle fiber’s cytoplasm. However, the sarcolemma, muscle cell membrane, and the sarcoplasmic reticulum, an organelle within muscle cells, actively regulate calcium levels (Norris & Lalchandani, 2018). Once the stimulus ends, the sarcoplasmic reticulum takes up calcium ions, reducing their concentration in the cytoplasm and allowing the muscle fiber to relax. Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment

References

Aragona, M., Porcino, C., Guerrera, M. C., Montalbano, G., Laurà, R., Cometa, M., … & Germanà, A. (2022). The BDNF/TrkB neurotrophin system in the sensory organs of zebrafish. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(5), 2621. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23052621

Kaur, A., Anand, C., Singh, T. G., Dhiman, S., & Babbar, R. (2019). Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors: A milestone to treat neurological disorders. Plant Arch, 19, 1347-1359.

Norris, T. L., & Lalchandani, R. (2018). Porth’s pathophysiology: Concepts of altered health states. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Yam, M. F., Loh, Y. C., Tan, C. S., Khadijah Adam, S., Abdul Manan, N., & Basir, R. (2018). General pathways of pain sensation and the major neurotransmitters involved in pain regulation. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19(8), 2164. https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijms19082164

This week, you will become familiar with the cells of the nervous system, the function of neurons, the excitable nature of neuronal cells, the classification scheme of neuronal fibers, electrical and chemical synapses, neurotransmitter classification, and neurotransmitters’ function as excitatory or inhibitory agents. You should pay attention to how neurotransmitter function is altered by other agents. Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment

The first presentation covers the cells of the nervous system and examines neuronal physiology, including describing the movement of the electrical signal, presenting the classification scheme of neurons, detailing the role of synapses in transferring the electrical signal, and describing neurotransmitters in detail.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

Nervous System Cells
Distinguish between the functions of the neurons and neuroglial cells of the nervous system
Describe the structure and function of the three parts of a neuron
Describe the metabolic requirements of nervous tissue
Describe the three phases of an action potential and relate the functional importance of ion channels to the different phases
Characterize the role of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) as they relate to spatial and temporal summation of membrane potentials
Neuronal Synapses and Neurotransmitters
Describe a neural synapse, and be able to distinguish between axoaxonic, axosomatic, and axodendritic synapses
Describe how neurotransmitters are synthesized, stored, released, and inactivated
Learning Materials Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment
Read the following in your Porthâ€™s Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States textbook:

Chapter 13, â€œOrganization and Control of Neural Functionâ€
The instructional materials do not follow linearly from that presented in Porth’s Pathophysiology. Having said that, this chapter in the textbook covers much of the material.

Instructional Materials
Review the following presentation. Note: the video has no audio.

Nervous System Cells Presentation
This week, you will become familiar with the cells of the nervous system, the function of neurons, the excitable nature of neuronal cells, the classification scheme of neuronal fibers, electrical and chemical synapses, neurotransmitter classification, and neurotransmitters’ function as excitatory or inhibitory agents. You should pay attention to how neurotransmitter function is altered by other agents.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

Nervous System Cells
Distinguish between the functions of the neurons and neuroglial cells of the nervous system
Describe the structure and function of the three parts of a neuron
Describe the metabolic requirements of nervous tissue
Describe the three phases of an action potential and relate the functional importance of ion channels to the different phases
Characterize the role of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) as they relate to spatial and temporal summation of membrane potentials
Neuronal Synapses and Neurotransmitters
Describe a neural synapse, and be able to distinguish between axoaxonic, axosomatic, and axodendritic synapses
Describe how neurotransmitters are synthesized, stored, released, and inactivated
Learning Materials
Read the following in your Porthâ€™s Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States textbook:

Instructional Materials
Review the following presentation. Note: the video has no audio.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

Nervous System Cells
Distinguish between the functions of the neurons and neuroglial cells of the nervous system
Describe the structure and function of the three parts of a neuron
Describe the metabolic requirements of nervous tissue
Describe the three phases of an action potential and relate the functional importance of ion channels to the different phases
Characterize the role of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) as they relate to spatial and temporal summation of membrane potentials
Neuronal Synapses and Neurotransmitters Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment
Describe a neural synapse, and be able to distinguish between axoaxonic, axosomatic, and axodendritic synapses
Describe how neurotransmitters are synthesized, stored, released, and inactivated
Learning Materials
Read the following in your Porthâ€™s Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States textbook:

Instructional Materials
Review the following presentation. Note: the video has no audio.

Nervous System Cells Presentation
Complete the Riku Case StudyLinks to an external site..

Riku Case Study Alternative Version Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment

Assignment Guidelines
You may also submit your completed work using the Riku Case Study (Word) document. Please make sure to include your name on your case study submission.
The material for this lesson is in the presentation titled â€œNervous System Physiology and Pathophysiology.â€ This material presents the higher and lower organization of the nervous system. The purpose of this material is to make you aware of the morphology and roles of the various regions of the brain and spinal cord, as well as the protective mechanisms in the brain, i.e., meningeal tissue, cerebrospinal fluid, and the blood-brain barrier. In light of the fact that strokes are the third leading cause of death, you should be able to describe the blood supply to the brain.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

Nervous System Organization
Describe the general organizational scheme of the nervous system
Compare and contrast the functional areas of the brain
Brain Protective Mechanisms
Describe the role of the brain meningeal tissues and cerebrospinal fluid as protective mechanisms
Understand the critical role of the blood-brain barrier
Describe the blood supply to the brain
Neuronal Tracts
Define the terms afferent, efferent, ganglia, association neuron, cell column, and tract
Autonomic Nervous System
Compare the sensory and motor components of the autonomic nervous system with those of the CNS
Cranial Nerves and Reflexes
List the cranial nerves and the spinal cord segments
Understand the pathway involved in a reflex response Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment
Learning Materials
Read the following in your Porthâ€™s Pathophysiology: Concepts of Altered Health States textbook:

Chapter 13, â€œOrganization and Control of Neural Functionâ€
You should use the assigned textbook readings to supplement or clarify the presented materials or to expand your knowledge on this lessonâ€™s topics.

Instructional Materials
Review the following presentation. Note: the video has no audio.

Nervous System Physiology and Pathophysiology Presentation
This week, you will become familiar with the cells of the nervous system, the function of neurons, the excitable nature of neuronal cells, the classification scheme of neuronal fibers, electrical and chemical synapses, neurotransmitter classification, and neurotransmitters’ function as excitatory or inhibitory agents. You should pay attention to how neurotransmitter function is altered by other agents. Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment

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Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:

Instructional Materials
Review the following presentation. Note: the video has no audio.

Nervous System Cells Presentation
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I expect a ready to submit, PhD level case study. Organization and Control of Neural Function Essay Assignment